The oldest classical British and Latin writing had little or no space between words and could be written in boustrophedon (alternating directions). Over time, text direction (left to right) became standardized, and word dividers and terminal punctuation became common. The first way to divide sentences into groups was the original paragraphs, similar to an underscore at the beginning of the new group.[2] The Greek parágraphos evolved into the pilcrow (¶), which in English manuscripts in the Middle Ages can be seen inserted inline between sentences. The hedera leaf (e.g. ☙) has also been used in the same way.
Indented paragraphs demonstrated in the US Constitution
In ancient manuscripts, another mean to divide sentences into paragraphs was a line break (newline) followed by an initial at the beginning of the next paragraph. An initial is an oversized capital letter, sometimes outdented beyond the margin of the text. This style can be seen, for example, in the original Old English manuscript of Beowulf. Outdenting is still used in English typography, though not commonly.[3] Modern English typography usually indicates a new paragraph by indenting the first line. This style can be seen in the (handwritten) United States Constitution from 1787. For additional ornamentation, a hedera leaf or other symbol can be added to the inter-paragraph white space, or put in the indentation space.
A second common modern English style is to use no indenting, but add vertical white space to create "block paragraphs." On a typewriter, a double carriage return produces a blank line for this purpose; professional typesetters (or word processing software) may put in an arbitrary vertical space by adjusting leading. This style is very common in electronic formats, such as on the World Wide Web and email. Wikipedia itself employs this format.
Typographical considerations
Widows and orphans occur when the first line of a paragraph is the last in a column or page, or when the last line of a paragraph is the first line of a new column or page.
Professionally printed material in English typically does not indent the first paragraph, but indents those that follow. For example, Robert Bringhurst states that we should "Set opening paragraphs flush left."[3] Bringhurst explains as follows:
The function of a paragraph is to mark a pause, setting the paragraph apart from what precedes it. If a paragraph is preceded by a title or subhead, the indent is superfluous and can therefore be omitted.[3]
The Elements of Typographic Style states that "at least one en [space]" should be used to indent paragraphs after the first,[3] noting that that is the "practical minimum".[4] An em space is the most commonly used paragraph indent.[4] Miles Tinker, in his book Legibility of Print, concluded that indenting the first line of paragraphs increases readability by 7%, on average.[5]
When referencing a paragraph, typographic symbol U+00A7 § SECTION SIGN (§) may be used: "See § Background".
In computing
See also: Newline
In word processing and desktop publishing, a hard return or paragraph break indicates a new paragraph, to be distinguished from the soft return at the end of a line internal to a paragraph. This distinction allows word wrap to automatically re-flow text as it is edited, without losing paragraph breaks. The software may apply vertical white space or indenting at paragraph breaks, depending on the selected style.
How such documents are actually stored depends on the file format. For example, HTML uses the <p> tag as a paragraph container. In plaintext files, there are two common formats. The pre-formatted text will have a newline at the end of every physical line, and two newlines at the end of a paragraph, creating a blank line. An alternative is to only put newlines at the end of each paragraph, and leave word wrapping up to the application that displays or processes the text.
A line break that is inserted manually, and preserved when re-flowing, may still be distinct from a paragraph break, although this is typically not done in prose. HTML's <br /> tag produces a line break without ending the paragraph; the W3C recommends using it only to separate lines of verse (where each "paragraph" is a stanza), or in a street address.[6]
Numbering
Main article: Dot-decimal notation
Paragraphs are commonly numbered using the decimal system, where (in books) the integral part of the decimal represents the number of the chapter and the fractional parts are arranged in each chapter in order of magnitude. Thus in Whittaker and Watson's 1921 A Course of Modern Analysis, chapter 9 is devoted to Fourier Series; within that chapter §9.6 introduces Riemann's theory, the following section §9.61 treats an associated function, following §9.62 some properties of that function, following §9.621 a related lemma, while §9.63 introduces Riemann's main theorem, and so on. Whittaker and Watson attribute this system of numbering to Giuseppe Peano on their "Contents" page, although this attribution does not seem to be widely credited elsewhere.[7] Gradshteyn and Ryzhik is another book using this scheme since its third edition in 1951.
See also: ISO 2145
Section breaks
Main article: Section (typography)
Many published books use a device to separate certain paragraphs further when there is a change of scene or time. This extra space, especially when co-occurring at a page or section break, may contain a special symbol known as a dinkus, a fleuron, or a stylistic dingbat.
Style advice
The crafting of clear, coherent paragraphs is the subject of considerable stylistic debate. The form varies among different types of writing. For example, newspapers, scientific journals, and fictional essays have somewhat different conventions for the placement of paragraph breaks.
A common English usage misconception is that a paragraph has three to five sentences; single-word paragraphs can be seen in some professional writing, and journalists often use single-sentence paragraphs.[1]
English students are sometimes taught that a paragraph should have a topic sentence or "main idea", preferably first, and multiple "supporting" or "detail" sentences that explain or supply evidence. One technique of this type, intended for essay writing, is known as the Schaffer paragraph. This advice differs from stock advice for the construction of paragraphs in Japanese (translated as danraku 段落).[8]
See also
Inverted pyramid (journalism)
Notes
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. "Paragraph Development". The Writing Center. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
Edwin Herbert Lewis (1894). The History of the English Paragraph. University of Chicago Press. p. 9.
Bringhurst, Robert (2005). The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver: Hartley and Marks. p. 39. ISBN 0-88179-206-3.
Bringhurst, Robert (2005). The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver: Hartley and Marks. p. 40. ISBN 0-88179-206-3.
Tinker, Miles A. (1963). Legibility of Print. Iowa: Iowa State University Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-8138-2450-8.
"<br>: The Line Break element". MDN Web Docs. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Kowwalski, E. "Peano paragraphing". blogs.ethz.ch.
com), Kazumi Kimura and Masako Kondo (timkondo *AT* nifty . com / Kazumikmr *AT* aol . "Effective writing instruction: From Japanese danraku to English paragraphs". jalt.org. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
References
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the Poets: Addison, Savage, etc.. Project Gutenberg, November 2003. E-Book, #4673.
Rozakis, Laurie E. Master the AP English Language and Composition Test. Lawrenceville, NJ: Peterson's, 2000. ISBN 0-7645-6184-7 (10). ISBN 978-0-7645-6184-9 (13).
External links
The dictionary definition of paragraph at Wiktionary
vte
Typography
Page
Canons of page constructionColumnEven workingMarginPage numberingPaper sizePaginationPull quoteRecto and versoIntentionally blank page
Paragraph
AlignmentLeadingRiverRunaroundWidows and orphans
Character
Typeface anatomy
CounterDiacriticsDingbatGlyphInk trapLigatureRotationSubscript and superscriptSwashText figuresTittle
Capitalization
All capsCamel caseInitialLetter caseSmall caps
Visual distinction
ItalicsObliqueBoldColor printingUnderlineBlackboard boldBlackletter
Horizontal aspects
Figure spaceKerningLetter-spacingParen spaceSentence spacingSpaceThin space
Vertical aspects
AscenderBaselineBody heightCap heightDescenderMedianOvershootx-height
Typeface
classifications
Roman type
Serif (Antiqua, Didone, slab serif)Sans-serif
Blackletter type
FrakturRotundaSchwabacher
Gaelic type
InsularUncial
Specialist
Record typeDisplay typeface (script, fat face, reverse-contrast)
Punctuation
DashesHanging punctuationHyphen-minusHyphenationPrime markQuotation mark
Typesetting
Etaoin shrdluFont computermonospacedFont catalogFor position onlyLetterpressLorem ipsumMicroprintingMicrotypographyMovable typePangramPhototypesettingPunchcuttingReversing typeType colorType designTypeface list
Typographic units
AgateCiceroEmEnMeasurePicaPoint traditional point-size namesProposed metric unitsTwip
Digital typography
Character encodingHintingRasterizationTypographic featuresWeb typographyBézier curvesDesktop publishing
Related articles
CalligraphyType designStyle guideType foundryHistory of Western typographyIntellectual property protection of typefacesTechnical lettering
Related tables
Punctuation and other typographic symbols
The oldest classical British and Latin writing had little or no space between words and could be written in boustrophedon (alternating directions). Over time, text direction (left to right) became standardized, and word dividers and terminal punctuation became common. The first way to divide sentences into groups was the original paragraphs, similar to an underscore at the beginning of the new group.[2] The Greek parágraphos evolved into the pilcrow (¶), which in English manuscripts in the Middle Ages can be seen inserted inline between sentences. The hedera leaf (e.g. ☙) has also been used in the same way.
Indented paragraphs demonstrated in the US Constitution
In ancient manuscripts, another mean to divide sentences into paragraphs was a line break (newline) followed by an initial at the beginning of the next paragraph. An initial is an oversized capital letter, sometimes outdented beyond the margin of the text. This style can be seen, for example, in the original Old English manuscript of Beowulf. Outdenting is still used in English typography, though not commonly.[3] Modern English typography usually indicates a new paragraph by indenting the first line. This style can be seen in the (handwritten) United States Constitution from 1787. For additional ornamentation, a hedera leaf or other symbol can be added to the inter-paragraph white space, or put in the indentation space.
A second common modern English style is to use no indenting, but add vertical white space to create "block paragraphs." On a typewriter, a double carriage return produces a blank line for this purpose; professional typesetters (or word processing software) may put in an arbitrary vertical space by adjusting leading. This style is very common in electronic formats, such as on the World Wide Web and email. Wikipedia itself employs this format.
Typographical considerations
Widows and orphans occur when the first line of a paragraph is the last in a column or page, or when the last line of a paragraph is the first line of a new column or page.
Professionally printed material in English typically does not indent the first paragraph, but indents those that follow. For example, Robert Bringhurst states that we should "Set opening paragraphs flush left."[3] Bringhurst explains as follows:
The function of a paragraph is to mark a pause, setting the paragraph apart from what precedes it. If a paragraph is preceded by a title or subhead, the indent is superfluous and can therefore be omitted.[3]
The Elements of Typographic Style states that "at least one en [space]" should be used to indent paragraphs after the first,[3] noting that that is the "practical minimum".[4] An em space is the most commonly used paragraph indent.[4] Miles Tinker, in his book Legibility of Print, concluded that indenting the first line of paragraphs increases readability by 7%, on average.[5]
When referencing a paragraph, typographic symbol U+00A7 § SECTION SIGN (§) may be used: "See § Background".
In computing
See also: Newline
In word processing and desktop publishing, a hard return or paragraph break indicates a new paragraph, to be distinguished from the soft return at the end of a line internal to a paragraph. This distinction allows word wrap to automatically re-flow text as it is edited, without losing paragraph breaks. The software may apply vertical white space or indenting at paragraph breaks, depending on the selected style.
How such documents are actually stored depends on the file format. For example, HTML uses the <p> tag as a paragraph container. In plaintext files, there are two common formats. The pre-formatted text will have a newline at the end of every physical line, and two newlines at the end of a paragraph, creating a blank line. An alternative is to only put newlines at the end of each paragraph, and leave word wrapping up to the application that displays or processes the text.
A line break that is inserted manually, and preserved when re-flowing, may still be distinct from a paragraph break, although this is typically not done in prose. HTML's <br /> tag produces a line break without ending the paragraph; the W3C recommends using it only to separate lines of verse (where each "paragraph" is a stanza), or in a street address.[6]
Numbering
Main article: Dot-decimal notation
Paragraphs are commonly numbered using the decimal system, where (in books) the integral part of the decimal represents the number of the chapter and the fractional parts are arranged in each chapter in order of magnitude. Thus in Whittaker and Watson's 1921 A Course of Modern Analysis, chapter 9 is devoted to Fourier Series; within that chapter §9.6 introduces Riemann's theory, the following section §9.61 treats an associated function, following §9.62 some properties of that function, following §9.621 a related lemma, while §9.63 introduces Riemann's main theorem, and so on. Whittaker and Watson attribute this system of numbering to Giuseppe Peano on their "Contents" page, although this attribution does not seem to be widely credited elsewhere.[7] Gradshteyn and Ryzhik is another book using this scheme since its third edition in 1951.
See also: ISO 2145
Section breaks
Main article: Section (typography)
Many published books use a device to separate certain paragraphs further when there is a change of scene or time. This extra space, especially when co-occurring at a page or section break, may contain a special symbol known as a dinkus, a fleuron, or a stylistic dingbat.
Style advice
The crafting of clear, coherent paragraphs is the subject of considerable stylistic debate. The form varies among different types of writing. For example, newspapers, scientific journals, and fictional essays have somewhat different conventions for the placement of paragraph breaks.
A common English usage misconception is that a paragraph has three to five sentences; single-word paragraphs can be seen in some professional writing, and journalists often use single-sentence paragraphs.[1]
English students are sometimes taught that a paragraph should have a topic sentence or "main idea", preferably first, and multiple "supporting" or "detail" sentences that explain or supply evidence. One technique of this type, intended for essay writing, is known as the Schaffer paragraph. This advice differs from stock advice for the construction of paragraphs in Japanese (translated as danraku 段落).[8]
See also
Inverted pyramid (journalism)
Notes
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. "Paragraph Development". The Writing Center. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
Edwin Herbert Lewis (1894). The History of the English Paragraph. University of Chicago Press. p. 9.
Bringhurst, Robert (2005). The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver: Hartley and Marks. p. 39. ISBN 0-88179-206-3.
Bringhurst, Robert (2005). The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver: Hartley and Marks. p. 40. ISBN 0-88179-206-3.
Tinker, Miles A. (1963). Legibility of Print. Iowa: Iowa State University Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-8138-2450-8.
"<br>: The Line Break element". MDN Web Docs. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Kowwalski, E. "Peano paragraphing". blogs.ethz.ch.
com), Kazumi Kimura and Masako Kondo (timkondo *AT* nifty . com / Kazumikmr *AT* aol . "Effective writing instruction: From Japanese danraku to English paragraphs". jalt.org. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
References
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the Poets: Addison, Savage, etc.. Project Gutenberg, November 2003. E-Book, #4673.
Rozakis, Laurie E. Master the AP English Language and Composition Test. Lawrenceville, NJ: Peterson's, 2000. ISBN 0-7645-6184-7 (10). ISBN 978-0-7645-6184-9 (13).
External links
The dictionary definition of paragraph at Wiktionary
vte
Typography
Page
Canons of page constructionColumnEven workingMarginPage numberingPaper sizePaginationPull quoteRecto and versoIntentionally blank page
Paragraph
AlignmentLeadingRiverRunaroundWidows and orphans
Character
Typeface anatomy
CounterDiacriticsDingbatGlyphInk trapLigatureRotationSubscript and superscriptSwashText figuresTittle
Capitalization
All capsCamel caseInitialLetter caseSmall caps
Visual distinction
ItalicsObliqueBoldColor printingUnderlineBlackboard boldBlackletter
Horizontal aspects
Figure spaceKerningLetter-spacingParen spaceSentence spacingSpaceThin space
Vertical aspects
AscenderBaselineBody heightCap heightDescenderMedianOvershootx-height
Typeface
classifications
Roman type
Serif (Antiqua, Didone, slab serif)Sans-serif
Blackletter type
FrakturRotundaSchwabacher
Gaelic type
InsularUncial
Specialist
Record typeDisplay typeface (script, fat face, reverse-contrast)
Punctuation
DashesHanging punctuationHyphen-minusHyphenationPrime markQuotation mark
Typesetting
Etaoin shrdluFont computermonospacedFont catalogFor position onlyLetterpressLorem ipsumMicroprintingMicrotypographyMovable typePangramPhototypesettingPunchcuttingReversing typeType colorType designTypeface list
Typographic units
AgateCiceroEmEnMeasurePicaPoint traditional point-size namesProposed metric unitsTwip
Digital typography
Character encodingHintingRasterizationTypographic featuresWeb typographyBézier curvesDesktop publishing
Related articles
CalligraphyType designStyle guideType foundryHistory of Western typographyIntellectual property protection of typefacesTechnical lettering
Related tables
Punctuation and other typographic symbols
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